3 stages of photosynthesis. Learn more about the steps of glycolysis and how it is used in both cellular respiration and fermentation. The Calvin cycle then uses ATP, NADPH, and carbon dioxide to create sugar. The electrons derived from this oxidation reaction in the light reactions are used to reduce NADP+ to NADPH. There are different types of photosynthesis, including C3 photosynthesis and C4 photosynthesis. C3 photosynthesis is used by the majority of plants. The carbon dioxide is converted into different forms of sugar, lipids and protein. During the light-dependent stage (“light” reactions), chlorophyll absorbs light energy, which Jul 30, 2022 · Photosynthesis takes place in two stages: light dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle. For every three turns of the Calvin cycle, three atoms of carbon are fixed from three molecules of carbon dioxide. ly/ch-ai-asst Learn all about the steps of photosynt Aug 29, 2020 · The other two stages of the dark phase of photosynthesis are reduction and regeneration. ) Photosynthesis can be split into two processes. • The inputs are carbon dioxide from the air and the ATP and NADPH produced by the light reactions. Dec 7, 2021 · Photosynthesis is a series of biochemical reactions that photosynthetic autotrophs use to convert solar energy into potential energy, and it involves two stages. Let’s see what each of these stages covers. Photosynthesis consists of a number of photochemical and enzymatic reactions. So, with that said, let's try to dig a little bit deeper and understand what's actually going on in these stages of photosynthesis. Choose from the following list the three stages of respiration which convert food to useful energy. 825 billion metric tons. For 6 carbon dioxide and 6 water molecules, 1 glucose molecule and 6 oxygen molecules are produced. Aug 15, 2018 · The Calvin Cycle has three phases, carbon fixation, reduction, and regeneration of ribose. The electrons derived from this oxidation reaction in the Calvin cycle are used to reduce CO2 to G3P. This is the overall overview of how the photosynthesis process step by step takes place. and second stages of photosynthesis are called. 1 10. An enzyme, RuBisCO, catalyzes a reaction with CO 2 and another molecule, RuBP. The first end-product of photosynthesis was this 3-carbon chain, this glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Light has properties of both particles and an elastic spring. In the light-dependent reactions, energy from sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll and that energy is converted into stored chemical energy. 1. In glycolysis, glucose—a six Later, his research on carbon compounds formed during photosynthesis was known after his name (Calvin’s cycle). Figure below gives an overview of these three stages, which are further discussed in the concepts that follow. The equation for glycolysis is: The name “glycolysis” comes from the Greek “glyco,” for “sugar” and “lysis” for “to split. The reactions can be summed up in this equation: C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2 → 6CO 2 + 6H 2 O + Chemical Energy (in ATP) The reactions of cellular respiration can be grouped into three stages: glycolysis (stage 1), the Krebs cycle, also called the citric acid cycle Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplast, an organelle specific to plant cells. The light reactions of photosynthesis occur in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast. Through photosynthesis, certain organisms convert solar energy (sunlight) into chemical energy, which is then used to build carbohydrate molecules. 4. Glucose molecules are combined by dehydration synthesis to form Mar 14, 2024 · Some scientists describe three stages in the evolution of Earth’s atmosphere as it is today. 3. Remember, we said there's two stages. 1: The light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis (left) convert light energy into chemical energy, forming ATP and NADPH. What are Two Stages of Photosynthesis? The two successive stages in which photosynthesis takes place are: The Light-dependent reactions; The Calvin Cycle, or the light-independent reactions; Let’s have a detailed look at these stages: The Light-dependent Reactions. The light-dependent reactions are depicted in Figure 8. Krebs cycle. These energy-carrying molecules are made in the Jul 30, 2017 · Products of Photosynthesis. In the light-independent reactions, the Cellular respiration is the process of releasing energy from organic molecules in cells. It goes into the Calvin Cycle and out pops-- whether you want to call it PGAL-- we talked about it in the first video-- or G3P. The stages of photosynthesis take place within the chloroplast, stage 1 within the granum and stage 2 within the stroma. In stage 2, the organic molecule is reduced. The chemical reactions that occur in the first. This is glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. Glycolysis. There are two stages of photosynthesis: the light dependent reactions and the light-independent reactions (also known as the Calvin Cycle). In this article, you will learn the basics of cellular respiration, its stages, and its importance for life. The Calvin cycle, which takes place in the stroma, uses National 5; Photosynthesis Stages of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis takes place in two sequential stages: the light-dependent reactions and the light independent-reactions. 2. 7. Using the energy carriers formed in the first steps of photosynthesis, the light-independent reactions, or the Calvin cycle, take in CO 2 from the environment. In this phase, the starting molecule of glucose gets rearranged, and two phosphate groups are Stages of Photosynthesis. Earth’s original atmosphere was probably just hydrogen and Jan 15, 2021 · Step 1. These molecules of gas moved so fast they escaped Earth's gravity and eventually all drifted off into space. 5. In summary, it takes six turns of the Calvin cycle to fix Cellular respiration is the process of breaking down glucose and other molecules to release energy for cellular work. In the stroma, in addition to CO 2, two other chemicals are present to initiate the Calvin cycle: an enzyme abbreviated RuBisCO, and the molecule ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP). All three necessary conditions are required – chlorophyll pigments, the chloroplast “theater,” and enzyme catalysts. • cycle uses carbon from the carbon dioxide, energy from the ATP, and high-energy electrons and hydrogen ions from the NADPH. 1 4. In this step, one CO 2 molecule is covalently attached to the five-carbon compound ribulose 1,5-biphosphate catalyzed by the enzyme ribulose 1,5-biphosphate carboxylase, also called rubisco. In stage 3, RuBP, the molecule that starts the cycle, is regenerated so that the cycle can continue. 3 8. Jan 23, 2024 · 3. 2 5. During these phases, the elements of photosynthesis Oct 4, 2019 · In the second stage of the Calvin cycle, the 3-PGA molecules created through carbon fixation are converted into molecules of a simple sugar – glyceraldehyde-3 phosphate (G3P). The Calvin cycle, which takes place in the stroma, uses Sep 12, 2018 · Summarize videos instantly with our Course Assistant plugin, and enjoy AI-generated quizzes: https://bit. Oct 26, 2023 · Arpita Srivastava. Next page Stages of photosynthesis reactions of photosynthesis in which energy from ATP and NADPH is used to build high-energy compounds such as sugars build compounds using carbon dioxide from the air Stage 2c of photosynthesis a 3-carbon compound leaves the cycle. This energy is used to rearrange atoms in carbon dioxide and water to make oxygen and sugars. glycolysis. Actually, plants reserve very little of the glucose for immediate use. Cereals alone are estimated to bind 3,825 Tg ( teragrams) or 3. , The four stages of the thylakoid reactions in order, In Van Niel's generalized equation of photosynthesis, which of the following is the donor of electrons? and more. The ATP and NADPH is used by the calvin cycle as a power source for converting carbon dioxide from the atmosphere The Two Parts of Photosynthesis. Feb 10, 2016 · Photosynthesis, is a process in which the energy from the sunlight, is transferred into glucose (fancy word for sugar). In summary, it takes six turns of the Calvin cycle to fix Stage 1: Fixation. electron transport chain. Figure 10. 1. 6 days ago · Not all forms of photosynthesis are created equal, however. some of Glycolysis. Figure 7. Photosynthesis takes place through several steps which occur during two stages: the light phase and the dark phase. This stage uses energy from ATP and NADPH created in the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis. 2) can be organized into three basic stages: fixation, reduction, and regeneration. Dec 24, 2022 · Figure: The two stages of photosynthesis: Photosynthesis takes place in two stages: light-dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle (light-independent reactions). Within plants most chloroplasts are found in the mesophyll cells of leaves. Oxygen and sugars are outputs of photosynthesis. This stage uses water and changes light energy from the sun into chemical energy stored in ATP and NADPH (another energy-carrying molecule). Aug 3, 2023 · This stage consists of 3 further steps that lead to carbon fixation/ assimilation. Light-dependent reactions use light energy and water to produce ATP, NADPH, and oxygen. Dec 3, 2021 · What are the three stages of photosynthesis and where do each of them occur? The stages of photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide from the air enters the leaves of the plant thanks to the pores found in them. Aerobic respiration is a complex, multi-stage process that efficiently produces ATP, the primary energy currency for cells. It requires oxygen. Energy-requiring phase. These pathways for fixing CO 2 have different advantages and disadvantages and make plants suited for different habitats. Steps of Dark Reaction. To replace the electrons in photosystem 2, _____ is split. The resulting 6-carbon product quickly splits into two molecules of a three-carbon compound (3-phosphoglycerate). 2: The Calvin cycle has three stages. The C 3 mechanism works well in cool environments, while C 4 and CAM plants are adapted to hot, dry phosphoglyceraldehyde or PGAL, a 3-C), two of which are removed from the cycle to make a glucose. In most pathways, glycolysis starts with glucose Dec 18, 2021 · The overall function of light-dependent reactions is to convert solar energy into chemical energy in the form of NADPH and ATP. Jul 31, 2022 · The Calvin cycle has three stages. Notice that the addition of one carbon dioxide in one turn of the reaction produces the 3-carbon molecule 3-phoshphoglycerate. Khan Academy is a nonprofit organization that offers free, high-quality education for Comparisons of C 3 , C 4 , and CAM plants. , What do glucose, starch and Photosynthesis Chloroplasts are large organelles, usually in a biconvex shape, and about 4-10μm long and 2-3μm wide. Photosynthetic bacteria, such as Cyanobacteria, are prokaryotes containing photosynthetic pigments in a membranous form that are primitive in nature, that can trap and use solar energy. Those carbohydrates are the energy source that heterotrophs use to power the synthesis of ATP via respiration. The energy used to hold these molecules together is released when an organism breaks down food. So the light independent reactions, the actual mechanism is called the Calvin Cycle. 2e- (electrons) What is being pumped across the membrane in this process? 2H+ (hydrogen protons) At the end of the electron transport chain, the electrons go to __________. 0 . In the process, water is used and oxygen is produced. Photosynthesis is a multi-step process that requires sunlight, carbon dioxide (which is low in energy), and water as substrates (Figure 8. These reactions can be seen in the image below. 1 8. The direct products of the light reactions and the Calvin cycle are 3-phosphoglycerate and G3P, two different forms of a 3-carbon sugar molecule. It happens through a long series of chemical reactions. Step 4-Light Dependent. In the first stage, called light-dependent reactions, autotrophs capture energy from sunlight. Main Structures and Summary of Photosynthesis. 1 ). In this chapter, you will learn how cellular respiration works, what factors affect its efficiency, and how it is related to photosynthesis. The Calvin cycle reactions (Figure 4. You will also explore the different types of cellular respiration, such Feb 16, 2021 · These energy carriers are used in the light-independent reactions to drive the energetically unfavorable process of “fixing” inorganic CO 2 in an organic form, sugar. Light-dependent reactions Thylakoid membrane Light energy is captured by chloroplasts and stored as ATP. Reduction of glycerate 3-phosphate. You’ve learned that the first, light-dependent stage of photosynthesis uses two of the three reactants, water and light, and produces one of the products, oxygen gas (a waste product of this process). 8. Sunlight hits the second pigment molecule allowing the enzymes to convert ADP to ATP and NADP+ gets converted to NADPH. It now has a complete set of electrons and can absorb more light energy. 1) Fixation. And that's what this video is really about. Photosynthesis involves two stages: the light-dependent reactions, which require sunlight and water to produce oxygen, ATP, and NADPH, and the light-independent reactions (or "dark reactions"), which use the products of the light-dependent reactions along with carbon dioxide to produce carbohydrates. Use only pink labels for pink targets. 3: Photosynthesis Overview and Equation , 13. 6: Light-independent Reactions , and 13. Carbon dioxide and water are inputs of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the process by which plants make food. Without the absorption of light, these reactions. 19. 3: Photosynthesis takes place in two stages: light-dependent reactions and the light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle or Calvin-Benson cycle). 1: The light-dependent reactions harness energy from the sun to produce ATP and NADPH. 2 4. 2. While the mechanisms of photosynthesis are complex, the overall reaction occurs as follows: carbon dioxide + sunlight + water ---> glucose (sugar) + molecular oxygen. It is the second stage of photosynthesis, in which the plant takes in the carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere. could not occur. It does not show the Jan 23, 2020 · In photosynthesis, energy from light is used to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen. 1 Discovery of Photosynthesis and 3. The light-independent reactions (also known as the Calvin cycle) can be organized into three basic stages: fixation, reduction, and regeneration (Video 4. Just formed Earth: Like Earth, the hydrogen (H 2) and helium (He) were very warm. Stage I is called the light reactions. This process transforms light energy into a usable form, supporting The chloroplast is involved in both stages of photosynthesis. The Calvin cycle oxidizes the light-reactions product NADPH to NADP+. The light reactions take place in the thylakoid. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like The chemical reaction equation of photosynthesis is shown here: 6CO2 + 62HO-> C6H12O6 What information is not given in this equation. Step 1: Fixation of CO 2 into 3-phosphoglycerate. Summary of stages of photosynthesis Photosynthesis requires light, carbon dioxide and water to be made. light reactions. 1: The two stages of photosynthesis: Photosynthesis takes place in two stages: light-dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle (light-independent reactions). Calvin cycle Stroma ATP is used to create sugars that the plant will use to grow and live. After the process is complete, it releases oxygen and produces glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (GA3P), simple carbohydrate molecules (which are high in energy) that can 1 day ago · Ans. The result of this binding is six Nov 21, 2023 · What are the 3 inputs for photosynthesis? The three inputs for photosynthesis are light, carbon dioxide, and water. This chemical energy supports the light-independent reactions and fuels the assembly of sugar molecules. It takes place inside the chloroplasts of plant Photosynthesis is vital for climate processes, as it captures carbon dioxide from the air and then binds carbon in plants and further in soils and harvested products. FAD + 2 e − + 2 H + → FADH 2. (Glucose is a simple sugar. But it can be summarized like this: Carbon dioxide, water and light go in. The name glycolysis means "sugar-splitting," and sure enough, this metabolic pathway splits glucose into two three-carbon molecules. Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants use sunlight energy to make their own food. Oct 28, 2020 · Photosynthesis is the process of creating sugar and oxygen from carbon dioxide, water and sunlight. Photosynthesis Equation. Energy from ATP and hydrogen from reduced NADP – both produced during the light-dependent stage of photosynthesis – are used to reduce glycerate 3-phosphate (GP) to a phosphorylated three-carbon (3C) sugar known as triose phosphate (TP) . You will also find interactive exercises and videos to help you master this topic. 3 1. Light energy that drives photosynthesis. • makes sugar. Protein complexes and pigment molecules work together to produce NADPH and ATP. Following is the fundamental equation of photosynthesis. The first stage H2O source of electrons & hydrogen. 3. The dark reaction of photosynthesis or Calvin cycle includes three consecutive stages: Carbon Fixation. This stage also releases oxygen as a waste product. Photosynthesis is essential for life on Earth. Photosynthesis, a process vital for life, involves two main stages: light-dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle. Photosynthesis is powered by energy from sunlight. The first phase of photosynthesis is the light-dependent reactions. The overall function of light-dependent reactions, the first stage of photosynthesis, is to convert solar energy into chemical energy in the form of NADPH and ATP, which are used in light-independent reactions and fuel the assembly of sugar molecules. accumulation of nutrients and expulsion of waste). g. Figure 8. Step 3- Light Dependent. Sep 15, 2022 · Figure 1. Dec 16, 2021 · Figure 8. The rate of photosynthesis decreases at higher temperatures. During photosynthesis, plants and some other organisms absorb energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and glucose. Stage Location Events. Photosynthesis takes place in two sequential stages: the light-dependent reactions and the light-independent reactions (Figure 8. O2 - Gas produced from splitting water. The 3 Stages of Photosynthesis. In the light-dependent reaction s , energy from sunlight is absorbed by pigment molecules in photosynthetic membranes and converted into stored chemical energy. Photosynthesis is vital because it evolved as a way to store the energy in solar radiation (the “photo-” part) as energy in the carbon-carbon bonds of carbohydrate molecules (the “-synthesis” part). 6. 2 8. These energy-carrying molecules are made in the stroma where carbon fixation takes place. During photosynthesis in green plants, light energy is captured and used to convert water, carbon dioxide, and minerals into oxygen and energy-rich organic compounds. [12] The conversion of unusable sunlight makes plants green. Respiration is a fundamental process that occurs in cells that extracts energy from organic molecules. 3 ). e. Figure 1. 1 7. The reactions of cellular respiration can be grouped into three stages: glycolysis (stage 1), the Krebs cycle, also called the citric acid cycle (stage 2), and electron transport (stage 3). Hence, they can carry out photosynthesis. Dec 18, 2021 · Photosynthesis is a multi-step process that requires sunlight, carbon dioxide (which is low in energy), and water as substrates (Figure 8. This may help you to remember that glycolysis it the process of splitting a sugar. Cells then use this energy to perform work, such as cellular respiration. It occurs in two stages. There, water (H 2 O) is oxidized, and oxygen (O 2 ) is released. Oct 10, 2016 · Unlike photosynthesis, aerobic respiration is an exergonic process (negative ΔG°) with the energy released being used by the organism to power biosynthetic processes that allow growth and renewal, mechanical work (such as muscle contraction or flagella rotation) and facilitating changes in chemical concentrations within the cell (e. Figure 4. And in the second stage, light-independent or dark reactions, the captured solar energy Sep 21, 2021 · Generating an Energy Carrier: ATP. It involves producing a three-carbon compound called 3-phosphoglyceric acid during the Calvin Cycle, which goes on to become glucose. But then you can use that to build up glucose or any other carbohydrate. The final end product formed in the reaction Jul 17, 2020 · Through photosynthesis, certain organisms convert solar energy (sunlight) into chemical energy, which is then used to build carbohydrate molecules. Step 5-Light independent. In stage 1, the enzyme RuBisCO incorporates carbon dioxide into an organic molecule. Stages of Cellular Respiration. The electrons move down to enzymes. After the process is complete, it releases oxygen and produces glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (GA3P), simple carbohydrate molecules (which are high in energy) that can subsequently be converted into Photosynthesis is really important for the plant because it provides the plant with food: some of the glucose is used immediately, to give the plant energy in the process of respiration. After the process is complete, it releases oxygen and produces glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (GA3P), simple carbohydrate molecules (which are high in ATP provides the energy and NADPH provides the hydrogen atoms needed to drive the subsequent photosynthetic dark reaction, or Calvin cycle. Light-dependent reactions, which take place in the thylakoid membrane, use light energy to make ATP and NADPH. The Calvin cycle, which takes place in the stroma, uses energy derived NAD + + 2 e − + 2 H + → NADH + H +. Two of these molecules combined equals one glucose molecule, the product seen in the photosynthesis equation. After three cycles, a three-carbon molecule of G3P leaves the cycle to become part of a carbohydrate molecule. 7 8. ”. In the carbon fixation stage, carbon dioxide is attached to RuBP by the enzyme rubisco. The Calvin cycle, which takes place in the stroma, uses energy derived from these compounds to make GA3P from CO 2. Cellular respiration involves many chemical reactions. Fixation: The first enzyme that intervenes in the Calvin Cycle is called RuBisCO, which fixes three atmospheric CO 2 atoms, binding them to three units of ribulose bisphosphate. C 3 , C 4 and CAM plants all use the Calvin cycle to make sugars from CO 2 . This article reviews the current knowledge and challenges of photosynthesis research, from molecular to global scales, and discusses the potential applications and implications of photosynthesis for agriculture, biotechnology and climate change. To see how a glucose molecule is converted into carbon dioxide and how its energy is harvested as ATP and NADH / FADH 2 in one of your body's cells, let’s walk step by step through the four stages of cellular respiration. Glucose, water and oxygen come out. Photosynthesis takes place within the chloroplasts of a plant's leaves and green stems. It does not show if the reaction is reversible It does not show the reactants needed for the reaction It does not show that photosynthesis consists of many separate steps. Photosynthesis occurs in two stages, which are shown in Figure below. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Pick the correct answer from each drop-down menu to complete the reaction for photosynthesis. In the light-dependent reactions, energy from sunlight is absorbed by pigment molecules in photosynthetic membranes and converted into stored chemical energy. Electron carrier molecules are arranged in electron transport chains that produce ATP and NADPH, which temporarily store chemical energy. The oxygen is released into the environment. Calvin cycle, also known as the C3 Cycle, is a light-independent or dark reaction. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms All the significant reactions of the photosynthesis process generally take place during the daytime in the chloroplasts of leaves. • each turn of the Calvin cycle, there are chemical inputs and outputs. Part A - Two stages of photosynthesis. In the stroma, in addition to CO 2, two other components are present to initiate the light-independent reactions: an enzyme called ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO), and three molecules of ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP), as shown in Figure 8. In the light-dependent reactions, energy absorbed by sunlight is stored by two types of energy-carrier molecules: ATP and NADPH. The sugars formed by the photosynthesis, are broken down by cells, and the energy is released. These are also called reactants and are used to power the chemical reactions in Sep 9, 2020 · Annals of Botany is a peer-reviewed journal that publishes original research articles on various aspects of plant biology, including photosynthesis. The energy that these molecules carry is stored in a bond that holds a single atom to the molecule. 2 ). For ATP, it is a phosphate atom, and for NADPH, it is a hydrogen atom. The reactions of photosynthesis can be divided into two separate stages that take place in different locations within the chloroplast. Sep 28, 2021 · Figure 5. 5: The Light-dependent Reactions , 13. is the only step which is shared by all types of respiration. 19). Stage One Absorption of Light Energy. Oct 8, 2023 · Aerobic respiration is the process of turning food into a form of chemical energy cells can use. These inputs come from the environment. On the other hand, water is absorbed by the roots and moves to the leaves and the light is absorbed by the pigments of the leaves. Glycolysis takes place in the cytosol of a cell, and it can be broken down into two main phases: the energy-requiring phase, above the dotted line in the image below, and the energy-releasing phase, below the dotted line. 1: Light-dependent reactions harness energy from the sun to produce chemical bonds, ATP, and NADPH. 3 Enzymatic Stage from Introduction to Botany by Alexey Shipunov 13. It involves three main stages: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain. Photosynthesis is a multi-step process that requires sunlight, carbon dioxide (which is low in energy), and water as substrates (Figure 4. Photosystem 1. The light-independent reactions of the Calvin cycle can be organized into three basic stages: fixation, reduction, and regeneration. Photosynthesis is really important for the plant because it provides the plant with food: some of the glucose is used immediately, to give the plant energy in the process of respiration. Drag the labels onto the diagram to identify the inputs and outputs of the two stages of photosynthesis. It is the initial stage of dark reaction, during which atmospheric carbon dioxide enters plant cells. Two of these molecules are then combined to produce a glucose, among other things. Starch (for storage) Sucrose (for translocation around the plant) Cellulose (for making cell walls) Photosynthesis occurs in two, closely-linked stages: the light-dependent stage, which takes place in the thylakoids, and the light-independent stage, which takes place in the stroma. some of Calvin cycle. 825 Pg ( petagrams) of carbon dioxide every year, i. In summary, it takes six turns of the Calvin cycle to fix six carbon atoms from The Calvin cycle is the term used for the reactions of photosynthesis that use the energy stored by the light-dependent reactions to form glucose and other carbohydrate molecules ( Figure 10. Light reactions harness energy from the sun to produce chemical bonds, ATP, and NADPH. Mar 1, 2024 · photosynthesis, the process by which green plants and certain other organisms transform light energy into chemical energy. The remaining PGAL molecules are converted by ATP energy to reform six RuBP molecules, and thus start the cycle again. RuBP has five atoms of carbon, flanked by two phosphates. 6CO2 + 6H2O (+ light energy) → C6H12O6 + 6O2. 7: Photorespiration and Photosynthetic Pathways by Melissa Ha, Maria Morrow, & Kammy Algiers is licensed CC BY-NC 4. Glucose sugar. vsklbfdghmrmdgqyjwwm